The Expanded Child Tax Credit and Educational Attainment in Rural, Majority-Minority Communities
Abstract
Despite the status of the United States as one of the world’s economic superpowers, the country is plagued by child poverty. The issue of child poverty is most prominent in rural, majority-minority communities, where years of limited opportunity, often created by systematic oppression, have created a vicious cycle of economic despair. There are a number of policies that have been explored which could limit the effects of child poverty, most notably the Expanded Child Tax Credit (ECTC), which was introduced as part of the American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA) of 2021. This paper uses a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to thoroughly examine this policy (ECTC) and its potential to both cut child poverty in the short term and increase educational attainment and economic mobility in the long term for recipients. The ECTC program ended in 2022 and only lasted in a short period. By examining the impacts of a similar and long-standing but less accessible and generous program, the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), on educational attainment in specific communities we can theorize and determine the significance the Expanded CTC would have. We use EITC program as a proxy of ECTC and reach inference of the long-term impact of ECTC program on children’s education attainment. The result of this research indicates a number of benefits of the Expanded Child Tax Credit, including its potential to cut child poverty and increase educational attainment, its impact on future economic prosperity in rural, majority-minority communities, and the policy’s ability to decrease economic disparities between non-metro and metropolitan areas.
1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Research Design and Methods
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What is the connection between childhood poverty rates and decreased levels of educational attainment
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Do communities with high child poverty rates see lower rates of educational attainment?
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What are the potential economic impacts of this?
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How does childhood poverty limit a child’s prospects for social mobility?
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How are the effects of childhood poverty exasperated by the economic inequity experienced by rural, majority-minority communities?
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Are rural communities more likely to have high rates of childhood poverty?
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What is the impact of this on rural educational attainment levels?
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Are rural, majority-minority communities more likely to experience high levels of childhood poverty when compared with rural, majority-white communities?
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How do direct payments, such as the Expanded Child Tax Credit, decrease child poverty and limit its effects?
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Where have similar programs been enacted?
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Have they been effective?
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How have these programs impacted child poverty rates?
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Have the effects of this been noticeable?
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Are direct payments, such as the Expanded Child Tax Credit, more effective in areas that experience high rates of child poverty such as rural, majority-minority communities?
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How have these programs impacted economically disadvantaged communities in the past?
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Have they been effective?
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How have these communities changed as a result of these programs?
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4. Data Collection And Analysis
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State | County | 1989 -Child Poverty Rate | 1990 -Educational Attainment (Completing College) | 1990 -Educational Attainment (Some College) | 1990 -Educational Attainment (Completed High School) | 2000 -Child Poverty Rate | 2000 -Educational Attainment (Completed College) | 2000 -Educational Attainment (Some College) | 2000 -Educational Attainment (Completed High School) |
Alabama | Bullock | 41.40% | 10.00% | 14.20% | 24.80% | 31.50% | 7.70% | 17.50% | 35.20% |
Alabama | Dallas | 44.90% | 12.20% | 19.20% | 28.20% | 32.10% | 13.90% | 22.90% | 33.60% |
Alabama | Macon | 42.10% | 18.00% | 20.70% | 23.20% | 32.40% | 18.80% | 26.30% | 25.00% |
Alabama | Marengo | 39.60% | 11.50% | 15.50% | 34.40% | 28.10% | 12.10% | 22.50% | 37.40% |
Alabama | Sumter | 52.20% | 11.10% | 15.10% | 26.20% | 36.00% | 12.40% | 21.20% | 31.10% |
Alabama | Wilcox | 62.40% | 10.30% | 14.20% | 26.50% | 37.60% | 10.10% | 19.20% | 30.30% |
Arizona | Apache | 48.80% | 8.50% | 20.60% | 25.50% | 35.80% | 11.30% | 27.40% | 24.90% |
Arizona | Santa Cruz | 31.30% | 10.80% | 20.90% | 25.50% | 32.90% | 15.20% | 22.70% | 22.80% |
Arkansas | Chicot | 56.90% | 8.30% | 11.40% | 31.50% | 36.70% | 11.70% | 17.30% | 35.30% |
Arkansas | Phillips | 66.20% | 9.20% | 19.90% | 22.40% | 38.50% | 12.40% | 23.40% | 26.50% |
Arkansas | St. Francis | 49.90% | 8.50% | 17.70% | 28.90% | 33.00% | 9.60% | 22.80% | 32.80% |
California | Colusa | 19.00% | 11.10% | 26.70% | 25.10% | 23.80% | 10.60% | 29.20% | 24.10% |
Florida | Hendry | 24.40% | 10.00% | 15.40% | 31.20% | 28.10% | 8.20% | 16.80% | 29.10% |
Georgia | Early | 51.30% | 9.40% | 15.50% | 29.20% | 34.20% | 12.60% | 22.40% | 33.50% |
Georgia | Jefferson | 34.50% | 6.20% | 13.30% | 30.10% | 28.60% | 9.10% | 15.50% | 34.00% |
Georgia | Macon | 46.60% | 10.10% | 12.70% | 30.90% | 32.50% | 10.00% | 18.00% | 35.20% |
Georgia | Sumter | 33.10% | 15.90% | 18.20% | 28.80% | 27.50% | 19.30% | 20.40% | 30.20% |
Georgia | Washington | 30.30% | 9.80% | 11.80% | 36.50% | 26.90% | 10.50% | 18.90% | 38.80% |
Kansas | Finney | 16.00% | 14.40% | 29.60% | 26.90% | 16.40% | 14.30% | 28.30% | 24.90% |
Kansas | Ford | 16.90% | 18.10% | 30.30% | 28.20% | 16.00% | 16.40% | 30.30% | 23.10% |
Kansas | Seward | 20.30% | 11.60% | 29.00% | 31.60% | 31.60% | 13.60% | 23.30% | 26.90% |
Louisiana | Claiborne | 38.40% | 10.10% | 16.60% | 34.20% | 32.50% | 12.40% | 18.10% | 35.20% |
Louisiana | East Carroll | 88.90% | 10.30% | 14.00% | 24.70% | 48.40% | 12.30% | 14.30% | 31.20% |
Louisiana | Madison | 69.00% | 9.20% | 14.40% | 29.60% | 44.20% | 11.00% | 18.70% | 33.70% |
Mississippi | Adams | 38.80% | 14.80% | 22.40% | 30.00% | 32.00% | 17.50% | 24.20% | 31.70% |
Mississippi | Bolivar | 58.30% | 15.20% | 19.30% | 20.40% | 35.00% | 18.80% | 22.10% | 24.30% |
Mississippi | Clay | 30.90% | 12.90% | 16.40% | 31.10% | 26.90% | 14.60% | 22.30% | 31.70% |
Mississippi | Coahoma | 62.80% | 14.70% | 21.00% | 18.20% | 36.40% | 16.20% | 24.50% | 21.50% |
Mississippi | Jasper | 37.30% | 9.80% | 18.20% | 32.00% | 27.10% | 9.80% | 22.40% | 34.50% |
Mississippi | Jefferson | 47.90% | 10.30% | 17.30% | 25.30% | 34.80% | 10.60% | 20.90% | 28.10% |
Mississippi | Kemper | 42.20% | 7.90% | 17.90% | 30.50% | 30.50% | 10.30% | 21.90% | 28.30% |
Mississippi | Lefore | 47.90% | 15.70% | 17.80% | 21.80% | 37.40% | 15.90% | 20.40% | 25.70% |
Mississippi | Noxubee | 55.20% | 7.90% | 13.00% | 28.70% | 37.70% | 10.90% | 16.90% | 30.60% |
Mississippi | Pike | 45.10% | 12.80% | 19.70% | 28.10% | 32.20% | 12.50% | 25.70% | 32.00% |
Mississippi | Sunflower | 54.60% | 12.40% | 17.00% | 19.90% | 36.20% | 12.00% | 21.70% | 25.60% |
Mississippi | Tallahatchie | 48.10% | 7.90% | 15.40% | 24.80% | 37.70% | 10.90% | 19.20% | 24.20% |
Mississippi | Washington | 45.10% | 14.30% | 19.10% | 25.40% | 34.90% | 16.40% | 21.40% | 28.70% |
Montana | Big Horn | 48.40% | 12.80% | 29.00% | 27.40% | 32.10% | 14.80% | 31.90% | 30.20% |
Montana | Glacier | 48.90% | 14.50% | 26.50% | 31.00% | 32.80% | 16.50% | 34.90% | 27.30% |
Montana | Roosevelt | 32.50% | 11.30% | 28.20% | 30.60% | 36.10% | 15.60% | 32.60% | 32.40% |
New Mexico | Chaves | 31.20% | 14.30% | 25.70% | 27.30% | 30.80% | 16.20% | 29.90% | 26.40% |
New Mexico | Grant | 25.00% | 16.40% | 26.00% | 28.10% | 26.70% | 20.50% | 29.80% | 29.10% |
New Mexico | Lea | 26.90% | 11.50% | 24.80% | 27.40% | 26.40% | 11.60% | 27.50% | 27.90% |
New Mexico | Luna | 37.90% | 11.10% | 16.70% | 31.00% | 45.90% | 10.40% | 19.50% | 29.90% |
New Mexico | McKinley | 34% | 11.10% | 17.70% | 29.70% | 41.60% | 12.00% | 25.40% | 27.80% |
New Mexico | San Miguel | 45.90% | 16.20% | 23.20% | 29.00% | 30.40% | 21.20% | 27.70% | 25.60% |
New Mexico | Taos | 37.40% | 18.50% | 23.70% | 29.70% | 30.50% | 25.90% | 26.60% | 26.60% |
North Carolina | Bertie | 36.20% | 8.00% | 13.80% | 33.00% | 28.80% | 8.80% | 18.30% | 36.70% |
North Carolina | Halifax | 37.40% | 8.60% | 16.90% | 28.50% | 27.40% | 11.10% | 21.20% | 33.10% |
North Carolina | Hertford | 32.30% | 10.70% | 17.80% | 29.60% | 25.90% | 11.10% | 23.50% | 30.90% |
North Carolina | Northhampton | 35.40% | 8.80% | 14.90% | 29.10% | 28.40% | 10.80% | 20.20% | 31.40% |
North Carolina | Vance | 23.10% | 9.50% | 17.50% | 30.10% | 25.20% | 10.70% | 23.10% | 34.20% |
North Carolina | Warren | 48.90% | 7.10% | 15.00% | 31.60% | 24.50% | 11.60% | 23.90% | 31.90% |
North Dakota | Rollette | 66.90% | 13.00% | 35.30% | 27.60% | 31.40% | 15.20% | 40.60% | 27.40% |
South Carolina | Bamberg | 38.60% | 11.20% | 19.50% | 28.40% | 27.60% | 15.40% | 21.00% | 28.30% |
South Carolina | Hampton | 29.70% | 8.80% | 15.00% | 35.10% | 26.30% | 10.10% | 19.10% | 37.80% |
South Carolina | Lee | 46.10% | 7.50% | 12.60% | 33.40% | 27.00% | 9.20% | 17.10% | 35.10% |
South Carolina | Marion | 35.40% | 9.10% | 13.50% | 32.70% | 30.10% | 10.20% | 19.30% | 38.50% |
South Carolina | Marlboro | 30.70% | 7.90% | 13.00% | 30.10% | 26.50% | 8.30% | 17.50% | 35.00% |
South Carolina | Orangeburg | 34.50% | 13.70% | 19.10% | 29.60% | 25.70% | 16.30% | 23.70% | 31.50% |
South Carolina | Williamsburg | 38.40% | 9.90% | 13.70% | 31.90% | 32.40% | 11.50% | 18.90% | 35.10% |
South Dakota | Todd | 88.90% | 11.80% | 25.40% | 30.00% | 45.40% | 12.10% | 30.70% | 31.30% |
Tennessee | Haywood | 41.00% | 8.70% | 14.20% | 30.10% | 23.10% | 11.10% | 17.10% | 37.50% |
Texas | Andrews | 18.10% | 9.80% | 23.60% | 27.80% | 19.60% | 12.40% | 23.00% | 32.60% |
Texas | Bee | 42.50% | 12.70% | 29.70% | 22.60% | 31.80% | 12.20% | 26.70% | 34.80% |
Texas | Dawson | 41.50% | 9.00% | 15.50% | 29.40% | 32.50% | 10.50% | 19.90% | 34.90% |
Texas | Deaf Smith | 34.70% | 11.00% | 21.00% | 25.50% | 28.40% | 11.80% | 22.60% | 26.50% |
Texas | Dimmitt | 59.10% | 7.80% | 13.70% | 18.30% | 43.10% | 10.10% | 17.90% | 26.30% |
Texas | Duval | 51.70% | 6.40% | 14.00% | 27.50% | 34.50% | 8.90% | 21.00% | 29.70% |
Texas | Frio | 56.70% | 7.50% | 13.80% | 28.80% | 38.20% | 8.40% | 20.80% | 28.40% |
Texas | Gonzales | 43.20% | 8.50% | 15.50% | 31.50% | 29.60% | 10.70% | 17.50% | 33.70% |
Texas | Hale | 36.40% | 12.70% | 20.90% | 27.50% | 25.90% | 14.40% | 22.80% | 28.70% |
Texas | Jim Wells | 41.50% | 9.40% | 19.20% | 26.80% | 30.50% | 10.90% | 21.50% | 32.40% |
Texas | Karnes | 41.60% | 8.90% | 17.00% | 25.40% | 28.50% | 9.40% | 17.40% | 32.30% |
Texas | Kleburg | 37.30% | 18.90% | 23.50% | 20.90% | 31.60% | 20.40% | 24.80% | 23.10% |
Texas | Lamb | 40.60% | 11.10% | 18.70% | 26.90% | 28.50% | 11.10% | 24.20% | 28.40% |
Texas | Maverick | 50.40% | 7.30% | 12.50% | 15.80% | 43.80% | 9.10% | 14.20% | 18.80% |
Texas | Moore | 15.70% | 10.80% | 21.20% | 30.00% | 19.10% | 11.00% | 22.60% | 28.50% |
Texas | Pecos | 34.40% | 12.10% | 19.40% | 26.60% | 29.00% | 12.90% | 20.20% | 29.40% |
Texas | Reeves | 45.20% | 6.90% | 15.30% | 23.20% | 35.90% | 8.00% | 13.80% | 24.90% |
Texas | Starr | 67.50% | 6.70% | 8.10% | 16.80% | 54.00% | 6.90% | 10.90% | 16.90% |
Texas | Terry | 41.00% | 9.70% | 21.00% | 29.00% | 31.90% | 9.50% | 21.20% | 31.90% |
Texas | Uvalde | 48.20% | 13.50% | 21.40% | 21.20% | 35.50% | 13.80% | 23.40% | 22.40% |
Texas | Val Verde | 48.50% | 13.00% | 21.50% | 21.60% | 33.70% | 14.10% | 19.80% | 24.80% |
Texas | Ward | 22.40% | 10.40% | 21.10% | 31.70% | 24.70% | 12.40% | 23.20% | 34.50% |
Texas | Willacy | 58.90% | 8.80% | 12.30% | 21.80% | 44.40% | 7.50% | 16.90% | 24.40% |
Texas | Zapata | 52.20% | 6.90% | 18.40% | 24.80% | 41.80% | 8.70% | 16.70% | 27.70% |
Texas | Zavala | 57.60% | 6.90% | 13.30% | 18.40% | 50.60% | 7.60% | 15.50% | 20.30% |
Utah | San Juan | 67.80% | 13.10% | 24.30% | 22.30% | 26.70% | 13.90% | 32.10% | 23.60% |
Virginia | Brunswick | 26.00% | 7.00% | 16.20% | 27.30% | 20.20% | 10.80% | 21.30% | 31.00% |
Washington | Adams | 21.90% | 12.30% | 24.50% | 29.60% | 23.40% | 12.20% | 24.90% | 26.20% |
Averages | 42.56% | 10.90% | 18.75% | 27.49% | 31.83% | 12.41% | 22.18% | 29.65% |
5. Results
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6. Policy Recommendations
For children over the age of 6, increase the maximum credit amount per child to $2,200, make the first $1,200 fully available regardless of earnings.
For children under age 6, increase the maximum credit amount per child to $2,800 and make the first $1,800 fully available regardless of earnings
Raise the age of eligible children to 17.
Pay the fully available portion of the CTC periodically throughout the year. This no-strings attached flow of income can act as an essential part of a family’s monthly budget (Akabas et al., 2021).
Authorize the IRS to regulate unenrolled tax preparers.
Adequately fund the IRS and improve the audit process.
Expand support for Volunteer Income Tax Assistance (VITA) sites.
Reversal of the cuts made in the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act on high income earners and corporations.
Adequately fund and equip the IRS with the resources they need to go after tax cheats and collect lost revenue. It is estimated that every $1 invested in the IRS results in a gain of $5-9 in revenue (Swagel, 2021).
7. Conclusion
Funding Statement
Acknowledgment
Conflict of Interest
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